tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-80372248323358087802024-02-20T02:16:50.245-08:00Anthropology GuideAnthropologyguide is an anthropology resource guide for all anthropology lovers.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.comBlogger239125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-59708558687836105552017-04-24T00:31:00.002-07:002017-04-24T00:31:46.799-07:00Field Work in Anthropology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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To produce ethnography,anthropologists do fieldwork.It is the rite of passage that makes an anthropologist.The oldest guide to fieldwork is Note and Queries in Anthropology which first appeared in 1874.Note and Queries was produced by the British Association for the Advancement of Science.The section on culture was written by E.B Taylor.Its purpose is to guide interested travellers,government administrators and missionaries as well as anthropologists on the kinds of questions to ask and material to record in the field.Notes and Queries was revised and edited in 1951 by the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-42933476461041427832017-04-23T23:07:00.001-07:002017-04-23T23:07:34.858-07:00The Anthropological Tree<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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There are four branches of study that makes up anthropology. The vast majority of anthropologists work in social anthropology.In the US they call it cultural anthropology or ethnology. The naming of parts as either social or cultural anthropology is a historic legacy of the specific developments of the British and American national traditions. Social or cultural anthropology involves the study of cultural diversity,the search for cultural universals,the study of societies as functioning wholes,the study of social structure,the interpretation of symbolism etc.</div>
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Physical anthropology began as a study of races of man.Anthropometrists with their callipers set about their favourite occupation of measuring and classifying head sizes.The objective was to prove racial differences as physically given and support racist theories of both human origins and cultural diversity.Physical anthropology includes studying classification from tooth variations between monkeys and modern man to comparative anatomy and physiology.Both human ecology and genetics are part of physical anthropology. Human ecology studies the adaptive responses of homo sapiens in different environmental conditions.Genetics in anthropology concerns the genetic variation of different racial groups.It is overshadowed by the growth of biological genetics.Physical anthropology came back in 1970s and 80s through the development of sociobiology the study of the genetic basis of human behavior.Linguistic concepts and theories are borrowed by anthropologists.Linguistic models are used as models for cultural and social behavior by structuralist and cognitive social anthropologists who see societies as communicative systems and who regard language as the basis for modes of thought.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-37232755179908961442015-04-19T07:26:00.003-07:002015-04-19T07:26:29.964-07:00Ferdinand De Saussure and Linguistics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span>The
source of modern structuralism and its strongest bastion to this day is linguistics. The
work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) stands out in the development of structural linguistics and, ultimately, structuralism in various other fields. Of particular interest is Saussure’s differentiation
between langue and parole<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>which was to have enormous significance. </div>
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<u>Langue</u><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is the
formal, grammatical system of language. It is a system of phonic elements whose
relationships are governed, Saussure and his followers believed, by determinate laws.
Much of linguistics since Saussure’s time has been oriented to the discovery of those
laws. The existence of langue<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>makes <u>parole</u><span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>possible. Parole<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>is actual
speech, the way speakers use language to express themselves. Although Saussure recognized the significance of people’s use of language in subjective and often idiosyncratic ways, he believed that the individual’s use of language cannot be the concern of
the scientifically oriented linguist. Such a linguist must look at langue<span style="font-style: italic;">, </span>the formal
system of language, not at the subjective ways in which it is used by actors.
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Langue,<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>then, can be viewed as a system of signs a structure and the meaning of each sign is produced by the relationship among signs within the system.
Especially important are relations of difference, including binary oppositions.
Thus, for example, the meaning of the word hot<span style="font-style: italic;"> </span>comes not from some intrinsic properties of the word but from the word’s relationship with, its binary opposition to, the
word cold<span style="font-style: italic;">. </span>Meanings, the mind, and ultimately the social world are shaped by the
structure of language. Thus, instead of an existential world of people shaping their
surroundings, we have here a world in which people, as well as other aspects of the
social world, are shaped by the structure of language.</div>
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T<span style="text-align: left;">he concern for structure has been extended beyond language to the study of
all sign systems. This focus on the structure of sign systems has been labeled “semiotics” and has attracted many followers.</span><span style="text-align: left;"><u>Semiotics</u></span><span style="font-style: italic; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="text-align: left;">is broader than structural linguistics because it encompasses not
only language but also other sign and symbol systems, such as facial expressions,
body language, literary texts, indeed all forms of communication.</span></div>
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Roland Barthes often is seen as the true founder of semiotics.
Barthes extended Saussure’s ideas to all areas of social life. Not only language but
also social behaviors are representations, or signs: “Not just language, but wrestling
matches are also signifying practices, as are TV shows, fashions, cooking and just
about everything else in everyday life”. The “linguistic turn” came to
encompass all social phenomena which in turn came to be reinterpreted as signs. </div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-68278654176093267402015-04-19T07:11:00.001-07:002015-04-19T07:11:13.110-07:00Sociology and Anthropology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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There are many fields in anthropology, namely; archaeology, linguistics, physical
anthropology and social anthropology. Although, anthropology has been regarded as
the study of early (primitive) cultures, and sociology ofthe more contemporary society.
This distinction is no longer valid. </div>
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Many of the early village studies in India have been done by social anthropologists. The tribal communities in India have, by and large, been studied by anthropologists, in both their physical and social aspects. There is, hence, some overlap between the areas of study of sociology and anthropology, particularly, social anthropology. Culture and social organisations are concepts studied in both these disciplines. </div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-81679432433140172702015-02-07T04:36:00.002-08:002015-02-16T03:03:57.066-08:00Female Genital Mutilation: Violence against women or a cultural norm<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">Clitoridectomy,
the surgical removal of the clitoris is one of the worst types of violence
against women. This type of female genital mutilation performed by a midwife, a
tribal practitioner, or a doctor typically without anesthesia is common in
African societies in countries such as Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Sudan,
Egypt, and especially in Ethiopia and Somalia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">The
practice is known to exist in certain cultural groups in other nations around
the world. Among members of these highly patriarchal societies, husbands demand
that their wives be virgins at marriage and remain sexually faithful
thereafter. The point of female genital mutilation is to eliminate sexual
feeling, which, people assume, makes the girl less likely to violate sexual
norms and thus be more desirable to men. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Helvetica Neue";">In
about one-fifth of all cases, an even more severe procedure, called
infibulation, is performed, in which the entire external genital area is
removed and the surfaces are stitched together, leaving only a small hole for
urination and menstruation. Before marriage, a husband retains the right to
open the wound and ensure himself of his bride’s virginity. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-71730099043546090372014-07-10T21:38:00.003-07:002015-02-16T03:19:32.700-08:00Culture and Youth by Eva Pearce<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Culture can mean different things to different people. Some people,
such as microbiologists, will consider a culture to be some form of Petri dish
colony while others will consider it the same as religious identity. However,
anthropologists define culture in a very different and intellectually more
rigorous way. They do this by analysing the spectrum of patterns that have
helped human societies to flourish. One of the founders of modern anthropology,
Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), once commented that culture was “<a href="http://www.branchcollective.org/?ps_articles=peter-logan-on-culture-edward-b-tylors-primitive-culture-1871"><span style="color: #103cc0;">the complex whole</span></a>”, and it would be this
totality in his observation that has fascinated anthropologists ever since. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Making a Society for the youth</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Prior to Tylor, how we developed cultural identities was considered a
biological trait that was inherited from one generation to the next. It would
be a shift toward looking at patterns of behaviour, toward a psychological
account, that would prove to be the most academically profitable in explaining
patterns of behaviour. This account would have to take into consideration a
whole plethora of novel factors such as laws, customs, morals, religious
beliefs, and habits. These factors may affect one part of the whole or may
constitute a significant slice of a given society, either way; it reflected the
new complexity with which one had to understand how we could define culture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">While acknowledging the significance of Tylor’s research, it must be
remembered that it was one of the first such novel accounts of culture and
therefore more inclined to error. One of the chief difficulties with his
outcome is that it assumes a homogenous type of civilisation – a place where
there is more unity than diversity. Besides assuming this homogeneity, his
definition does not permit any type of exceptions – a notable example being
trends that are contrary to the mainstream such as alternative fashion or
music. By limiting the scope of how one defines culture, Tylor’s work could
only stretch so far until such time came that a fresh new look needed to be
taken.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">A Dynamic Civilisation</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This dynamism that imbues modern society can be understood by looking
at its three <a href="http://anthro.palomar.edu/culture/culture_1.htm"><span style="color: #103cc0;">distinct layers</span></a>. In the first instance,
patterns of behaviour govern a particular group of people; this can include the
traditional conception of what it means to be Chinese as opposed to Irish. The
second layer looks at what are known as subcultures, the chunks of society that
identify both with the mainstream as well as their own local variant.
Subcultures can often disappear and become part of the mainstream as has been
seen with Irish Americans. The third layer encompasses the broad behavioural
patterns that are shared across humanity, principles such as gender
classification, art and communication.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">The purpose of understanding these layers of learned patterns in
civilisation is that it enhances comprehension of how diverse a culture can be.
This aforementioned dynamism only partly echoes what Tylor defined and
highlights the great complexity in trying to understand modern culture.
However, the concept of “the complex whole” managed to pervade academic
literature right up until modern times. The reason for the marked departure
from Tylor’s work rested on the idea of falsely differentiating between
different types of culture – in this case low and high culture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Impact of Popular Youth Culture</span></b><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">It might be noted that Tylor’s scientific approach in understanding
how societies operate focussed chiefly on what might be called high culture.
Understanding the differences between <a href="http://alkubaisi.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2013/03/12/what-are-the-key-differences-between-high-and-low-culture/"><span style="color: #103cc0;">high and low culture</span></a> became an integral
part of these scholarly developments. Hence, this left a chasm in the academic
environment in how to fuse low culture with its upper counterpart. A case in point
would be to look at the effects of alcohol and drug abuse in modern times. The
misuse of these psychoactive agents has grown exponentially in recent years
resulting in the <a href="http://www.centers.org/learn/inpatient-residential-treatment-centers/"><span style="color: #103cc0;">proliferation of local therapeutic clinics</span></a> on
a scale not seen before. From a purely theoretical standpoint, the abuse of
such substances challenges the prevailing zeitgeist of what's morally
acceptable which is entirely contrary to adherents of the Tyrolean account of
culture.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">This
is because what happens at the lower strata of society was hitherto never
considered part of what it meant to be cultural. Incorporating the challenges
from this level of society into the cultural framework has led to a blurring of
the boundaries in how to arrive at a crisp definition of culture.
Unfortunately, it appears that this definition still remains elusive. Research
compiled by Helen Spencer-Oatey <a href="http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/globalpad/openhouse/interculturalskills/global_pad_-_what_is_culture.pdf"><span style="color: #103cc0;">has revealed</span></a> that there are over 160
different academic definitions of culture, each varying with some minor
technical nuance. Notwithstanding the anthropological developments that have
taken place over the past century and a half, it seems that forging a clear
characterisation of societal behaviour remains just as difficult as it was when
the problem was first introduced. </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-23804898988686755202014-06-25T02:53:00.000-07:002014-06-25T02:53:07.066-07:00Karl Marx<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karl Marx was born in Germany
but spent much of his professional life in London, working
and writing in collaboration with Friedrich Engels. Two of
Marx and Engels’s most influential treatises are Das Kapial and The Communist Manifesto. Das Kapital, a massive
multivolume work published in 1867, 1885, and 1894, is
critical of the capitalist system and predicts its defeat by
a more humane and more cooperative economic system:socialism. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Communist Manifesto is a 23-page pamphlet that was issued in 1848 and has since been translated
into more than 30 languages . </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Manifest</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">o includes these famous lines: “The workers have nothing to lose but their chains; they have a whole world to gain. Workers of all countries, unite.” </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Marx sought to analyze and explain <span style="font-weight: 700;">conflict</span>, the major
force that drives social change. The character of conflict
is shaped directly and profoundly by the means of production, the resources (land, tools, equipment, factories,
transportation, and labor) essential to the production and
distribution of goods and services. Marx viewed every historical period as characterized by a system of production
that gave rise to specific types of confrontation between
an exploiting class and an exploited class. For Marx, class
conflict was the vehicle that propelled people from one
historical epoch to another.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From Marx’s perspective, the Industrial Revolution
was accompanied by the rise of two distinct classes, creating a fundamental divide: the <span style="font-weight: 700;">bourgeoisie</span>, the owners of
the means of production, and the <span style="font-weight: 700;">proletariat</span>, those individuals who must sell their labor to the bourgeoisie.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karl Marx believed that the pursuit of profit was behind
the explosion of technological innovation and the never-
before-seen increase in the amount of goods and services
produced during the Industrial Revolution. In a capitalist
system, profit is the most important measure of success.
Marx described class conflict as an antagonism that grows
out of the opposing interests held by these two parties.
The bourgeoisie’s interest lies with making a profit and the
proletariat’s with increasing wages. To maximize profit,
the bourgeoisie work to cut labor costs with labor-saving
technologies, employ the lowest-cost workers, and find the
cheapest materials to make products.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-align: left;">Marx believed that capitalism was the first eco-
nomic system capable of maximizing the immense produc</span><span style="text-align: left;">tive potential of human labor and ingenuity. He also felt,
however, that capitalism ignored too many human needs
and that too many people could not afford to buy the products of their labor.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="text-align: left;">In the </span><span style="text-align: left;">Class Struggles of France 1848–1850</span><span style="text-align: left;">, Marx named
another class, the finance aristocracy, who lived in obvious </span><span style="text-align: left;">luxury among masses of starving, low-paid, and unem-</span><span style="text-align: left;">ployed workers.</span><span style="text-align: left;">According to Marx</span><span style="text-align: left;"> the financial aristocracy appropriate to themselves</span><span style="text-align: left;">“public funds or private funds without giving anything</span><span style="text-align: left;">equivalent in exchange; it is the cancer of production, the </span><span style="text-align: left;">plague of society and of states.”</span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-31929962085045049222014-02-16T23:04:00.001-08:002014-02-16T23:04:19.686-08:00Durkheim and Structural Functionalism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The fundamental theoretical premises of British social anthropology and structural -functionalism are based upon Emile Durkheim's apothesis of social solidarity.The theories of structural-functionalism have everything in common with Durkheim's approach to socio-cultural phenomena via the conditions of social cohesiveness or social solidarity.</div>
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The structural -functionalists basic assumption is that social system maintain themselves for significant intervals of time in a steady stat during which a high degree of cohesion and solidarity characteristics the relationship among its members.The only difference between Radcliffe Brown and Durkheim in this regard is that Radcliffe- Brown substituted the terms unit,harmony and consistency for Durkheim's solidarity.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-89507770470055705752014-02-14T03:30:00.000-08:002014-02-14T03:30:06.249-08:00Ethnographic Monographs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Ethnographers of the early 20th century tried to explain the social phenomena in terms of the societies studied.Publications arising out of these efforts came to be known as ethnographic monographs.As an early example of this approach H Junod's The Life of a South African Tribe published in 1912-13,Malinowski's Argonauts of the Western Pacific published in 1922 can be considered as the examples of the scientific study of a primitive society.This book analyses the kula system of exchange of gifts among the Trobrinaders.</div>
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Professional research in Africa was initiated by the visit of Seligman and his wife to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1909-10.Later intensive field studies of tribal societies in Africa were made by L A Schapera among the Bechuana,Meyer Fortes among Tallensi of the Gold Coast , S F Nadel among the Nupe of Nigeria,Hilda Kuper among the Swazi and by Evans Prichard among the Nuer of Southern Sudan.All these studies were among the small-scale political groups. All the ethnographic studies mentioned entailed the field study of a primitive society for about a year and a half.After intensive fieldwork it took a scholar about 5 years to publish the results of the research.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-83859554781746025412014-02-06T23:39:00.004-08:002014-02-06T23:39:56.936-08:00Tradition of Folklore Researches<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Folklore is regarded as prehistory of a society.The folklore researches which were at the level of spordic collection of tribal songs and taken to be included in the monograph received a systematic treatment with Verrier Elwin to begin with under the influence of F Boas and E B Taylor.With the passage of time social elements hidden in folklore were unearthered by few anthropologists and also by several scholars of literature.Now days anthropologists are attempting to collect information on folksongs,balled,folk tales,folk belief,folk traditions,folk music and folk medicine,plays,proverbs etc under broad subject of folklore to explore folk culture of an area or region.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-39916022980445384572014-02-06T03:02:00.000-08:002014-02-06T03:02:23.086-08:00Sir James George Frazer views on Totem and Taboo<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Sir James George Frazer wrote articles on totem and taboo for Encyclopedia Britannica which appeared in 1888.For him these articles were beginning of a systematic application to anthropology and study of backward race of men.Frazer gave his reason for concentrating on savagery than on civlilization : </div>
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Civilization is extremely complex,savagery is comparatively simple.Savagery is undoubtedly the source from which all civilization has been ultimately derived by a slow process of evolution.It seemed to me therefore that if we are to understand the complex product we must begin by studying the simple elements out of which it has been gradually compounded.In other words we must try to understand savagery before we can hopefully to comprehand civilisation.</div>
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In his article on totemism and taboo Frazer has given a general idea about social origins which became the guiding principle for much of his work. That from irrational beginning ,system of great adaptative value for society are evolved.In taboo Frazer remarks we shall scarcely err in believing that even in advanced society the moral sentiments in so far as they aer merely sentiments are not based on an induction from experience,desire much of their force from an original system of taboo.Thus on the taboo were grafted the golden fruits of law and morality.</div>
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According to Frazer a totem is a class of material objects which a savage regards superstitions with respect believing that there exists between him and every member of clan an intimate all together a special relation In his book Totemism and Exogamy Frazer gave a theory of soul for the origin of totem.He opined that totem originated as belief in soul.Savages believed that souls of human beings after death resided in plants,trees,animals,birds etc.The plants,trees,animals etc which were possessed by the soul of dead persons the savages began to pay respect towards them.Eating and killing of those objects were strictly tabooed.In this way totemism came into being.He cited example from Arunta tribe of Australia in whose belief system,totems were regarded as responsible for causing preganancy among women.Thus totemism came into being from female side rather than male side.When in course of time totems had become hereditary exogamy developed as a means of preventing inbreeding.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-51208552719366417242014-02-04T21:41:00.001-08:002014-02-04T21:41:30.744-08:00Nadel's Contribution to Structural Functionalism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Nadel developed the theory of social structure in his book entitled Theory of Social Structure in 1957.In his book Nadel pointed out that the concept of society may be viewed from two angles -action such as kinship and economics and groupings such as family,clans.He also says that there are some social and cultural facts which fall outside the social and cultural scheme.These refer to an action autonomous.</div>
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Nadel held view that the concept of social structure is still in a sense on trial.The variety of definitions lead us to fear that it is a concept the width of whose usages renders it analytically fruitless.There are two choices open to us.We may remove the concept of structure from the vocabulary of anthropology on account of its lack of precision or we can attempt to narrowly define it by giving a specific and limited connotation.</div>
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According to Nadel structure is the formal relation of parts such that a set of data may be said to exhibit structure in as much as they exhibit a definable articulation,an ordered arrangements of parts.The difficulties begin when we attempt to extrapolate this minimal definition from its purely formal sense to its supposed applications to sociological data.It is not difficult to see that technical problems which confront especially Radcliffe-Brown and Levi Strauss occur at this point in their analysis.There are three dichotomies to resolve which are aspects of structure- structure as opposed to function.Structure as opposed to qualitative character and structure as opposed to process.Unless we resolve these dicotomies we are unable to give a satisfactory account of social structure.</div>
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Social behaviour involves stereo-typed or relatively determinate ways of action within groups between groups and over periods of time hence the continuity of group.Social behaviour in other words is institutionalised.The institutionalised behaviour is characterized by the consistency of the relationships of which it is composed.It varies in detail according to occasions and circumstances but its general character which allows it to be subsumed in an identical category of relationship for example friendship,joking relationship etc or within specific cultures or sub-cultures for example the child -parent relationship or avuncular relationships which are clearly bound by the convention of particular society.Thus we cannot ignore the qualitative aspects of such relationship or their content in favour of their formal aspects.This is fact we cannot do for distinguishing for example love or loyalty or respect form servility.It is precisely this effective element which is the criteria by which we distinguish between the categories even when we express these criteria in behavioural terms.</div>
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According to Nadel we arrive at the structure of society through abstracting from the concrete population and its behaviour that pattern or network of relationships obtaining between actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to each other.He has tried to explain that structure refers to a definable articulation an ordered arrangement of parts.It is related to outer aspect of society and is totally unconcerned with the functional aspect of society.He has emphasized that social structure refers to the network of social relationships which is created among the human beings when they interact with each other according to their status in accordance with the patterns of society.Nadel therefore says that structure indicates an transportable being relatively invariants while the parts themselves are variable.According to him there are three elements of society- a group of people,institutionalized rules according to which members of the group interact and an institutionalized pattern or expression of these interactions.The institutionalized rules or patterns donot change easily and this creates an orderliness in society.These rules determine the status and roles of the individuals.There is an order among these rules and status also which provide an ordered arrangement of human beings.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-83617796708549546492014-02-04T00:11:00.002-08:002014-02-04T00:11:53.246-08:00George Peter Murdock's View on Structure -Function<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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G P Murdock's book Social Structure written in 1949 was most explicit on the point of functionalism.In this book historical,functional ,psychological and statistical methods are brought together to form a harmonious synthesis of cross-cultural comparisons.When Murdock wrote his book on social structure he used data from some 250 different societies about which coded material was already available.</div>
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His approach may be illustrated by his analysis of incest taboos.Prohibitions of sexual intercourse within the nuclear family are universal but in every known societies these taboos are extended beyond father-daughter,mother -son and brother-sister relationship.These extentions are not same everywhere.Sometimes they include maternal cousins only or parental ones only.Murdock grasped the complexity of the problems and showed that it could not be explained by the anthropology alone.He credited Sigmund Freud with the explanation of the universality of incest taboos because he had shown that nuclear family was constituted in such a waythat it generated oedipus complex so that rather than having instinctive aversions a boy desired his mother sexually.Social training strongly repressed his desire which accounted for the emotional quality of the prohibition of incest and often very severe punishments for breaking the rules.</div>
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Murdock demonstrated the extension in the direction of maternal relatives is most common in matrilineal societies in the patrilineal directions in patrilineal societies and in both directions incase of double descent.These and many other findings of cross-cultural regularities are in turn functionally interrelated with other cultural rules such as exogamy,preferential marriage,family organisations and residence rules.</div>
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Murdock's book Social Structure although giving new dimensions to this subject is but is a publication emphaizing kinship.</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-78809219732182683272014-01-26T23:19:00.002-08:002014-01-26T23:22:34.324-08:00Anthropology-Scope and Value<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">Anthropology is usually
classified as a social science along with disciplines such as sociology,
economics, political science and psychology but it has much in common with
natural sciences like biology and geology as also with religion and art in the
field of humanities. The diverse field of anthropology has broader scope than
other social sciences. Anthropologists are interested in all human beings and
their different aspects such as skin color, kinship system, religious beliefs,
technologies and other aspects of life.</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;">In physical anthropology,
investigation of the evolution of the human species, physical variations among
different human groups and anatomy of monkeys, apes and humans are studied.
Primatology is a line of specialization within anthropology and it specializes
in the evolution, anatomy, adaptation and social behavior of primates which
constitutes the taxonomic order including humans.Anthropogists studying the
variation in the human beings seek to measure and explain the similarities and
differences among the people of the world.</span><span style="font-family: Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/scope-and-value.php" style="font-family: Arial; text-align: justify;">http://www.sociologyguide.com/anthropology/scope-and-value.php</a></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-28291867123329949512014-01-26T23:03:00.002-08:002014-01-26T23:07:29.275-08:00 Components of Symbolic Culture<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: AGaramond;"><b>Gestures</b> </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">movements of the body to communicate with others are shorthand ways to
convey messages without using words. Although people in every culture of the world use
gestures, a gesture’s meaning may change completely from one culture to another.</span><span style="font-family: AGaramond; text-align: left;">Gestures not only facilitate communication but also, because they differ
around the world, can lead to misunderstanding, embarrassment, or worse.</span><span style="font-family: AGaramond; text-align: left;">To get along in another culture, then, it is important to learn the gestures
of that culture.</span><span style="font-family: AGaramond; text-align: left;">It is also significant that certain gestures can elicit emotions; some gestures
are so closely associated with emotional messages that the gestures themselves summon up
emotions.</span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<span style="font-family: AGaramond; text-align: left;">T</span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">he primary way in which people communicate with one another is through </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond'; font-weight: 700;">language</span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">— symbols that can be combined in an infinite number of ways for the purpose of communicating abstract thought. Each word is actually a symbol, a sound to which we have attached some particular meaning.</span><span style="font-family: AGaramond;">By means of language, we pass ideas, knowledge, and even attitudes on to the next generation. This allows others to build on experiences in which they may never directly participate. As a result, humans are able to modify their behavior in light of what earlier generations have learned.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">To learn a culture is to learn people’s </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond'; font-weight: 700;">values, </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">their ideas of what is desirable in life. When we uncover people’s values, we learn a great deal about them, for values are the standards by which people define what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly. Values underlie our preferences, guide our choices, and indicate what we hold worthwhile in life.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">Norms that are not strictly enforced are called </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond'; font-weight: 700;">folkways. </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond';">We expect people to comply with folkways.</span><span style="font-family: AGaramond;">Other norms, however, are taken much more seriously. We think of them as essential to our core values, and we insist on conformity. These are called </span><span style="font-family: AGaramond; font-weight: 700;">mores.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'AGaramond'; text-align: left;">A </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond'; font-weight: 700; text-align: left;">taboo </span><span style="font-family: 'AGaramond'; text-align: left;">refers to a norm so strongly ingrained that even the thought of its violation is greeted with revulsion. Eating human flesh and parents having sex with their children are examples of such behaviors. </span><span style="font-family: AGaramond; font-weight: 700; text-align: left;"> </span><br />
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-90766217257735636992013-12-23T05:33:00.002-08:002013-12-23T05:33:56.147-08:00Cultural Imperialism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">Cultural imperialism is the process and practice of
promoting one culture over another and often
occurs through programs designed to assist other
nations, particularly developing nations. Historically this occurred during </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046C;">colonization </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">where one
nation overpowers another weaker country for economic or political gain. Culture can be imposed in a
wide variety of ways such as through restructuring
education, religious, and political institutions.
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">Cultural imperialism is different from </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046C;">cultural
diffusion </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">primarily due to the mechanisms involved
in changing culture and the roles power plays in the
process.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">Contemporary practices that result in cultural
imperialism often take the form of development or
assistance programs for struggling nations or communities.</span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">In recent years contemporary globalization, or </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046C;">globalism</span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">, is the new vehicle by which cultural imperialism can occur. People supporting the expansion of free markets contend that cultures are naturally
fluid and therefore cultural imperialism is a natural result of trade. If western practices and ideas
are adopted then it is believed that the cultural
practices associated with them are better.</span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B; text-align: left;">Challenges to this belief include a questioning of
what is being transferred or imposed upon other
nations, who or what benefits from cultural shifts
and what cultural aspects become lost.</span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-63851688749816850442013-10-22T22:59:00.001-07:002013-10-22T22:59:05.171-07:00Cultural Citizenship<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">T</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">he idea of cultural citizenship has emerged through
three main phases of debate. Firstly there was
an attempt to extend the categories of citizenship
to include questions of culture. Here there was a
retracing of the debates on citizenship that was
largely concerned with questions of rights and duties
in the context of national societies to include issues
related to culture. This work owed a great deal to
attempts to link sociology and cultural studies found
in the work of Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, and
others. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During phase one of the cultural citizenship
debate issues related to the commodification of
culture, access to the relevant cultural capital and
the decline in cultural authority of the traditional</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">arts dominated.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cultural citizenship was crucially a
normative category that aimed to develop the conditions for a popular participatory democracy and a
culturally inclusive society. However, the contours
of this debate began to change through a greater
recognition of the cultural pluralization of western
democracies that had accompanied increasingly
global societies. That cultures were no longer
rooted to the spot in an age of virtuality, mass
tourism, hybridity, migration and immigration,
and other cultural mobilities became increasingly
apparent. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pakulski (1997) argued that
from children to the disabled and from ethnic communities to diverse sexualities there were new
demands being made for representation without
normalizing distortion. If the previous set of
debates was concerned with questions of participation and the distribution of cultural resources the
second phase of the debate was more explicitly
focused on issues related to cultural recognition. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Finally, there are now signs that the debate on
cultizenship could be entering into a third phase
beyond questions related to identity to include
the recent neoliberal assault on cultural practices
more generally. </span></div>
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</div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-78584700960705708962013-09-16T22:11:00.001-07:002013-09-16T22:11:16.014-07:00Concepts of Race and Racism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">African-American writer and activist W.E.B. Du Bois saw at the dawn of the last century
racism’s bloody climax, the culmination of a 200-year history in which Europeans ordered
and ranked humankind through the mechanism of ‘race’ . The
idea of ‘race’ had been created over two centuries within science and philosophy to justify
the supremacy of white Europeans. For Du Bois, the problem of the colour line not only
included the experience of African-Americans who had been enslaved as chattel property
and segregated by Jim Crow laws; it also included European forms of colonial domination
and dispossession. Furthermore, it provided the mechanism through which to persecute
Jews and gypsies Europe’s internal ‘others’ and a means to justify the Third Reich’s
Final Solution.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">George Fredrickson (2002) has pointed out, the twentieth century
saw the emergence of ‘overtly racist regimes’ where racist ideas were codified into laws
and forms of public policy in the American South, Nazi Germany and Apartheid South
Africa.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The world Du Bois knew had been transformed profoundly by the end of the
twentieth century. Europe’s colonies had won independence.Apartheid had ended in
South Africa; and the civil rights movements in the United States had produced a situation
where a black man could be president. Ideas of racial difference which developed in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had by now been largely discredited. </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However,
racism has far from disappeared. In the twenty-first century, the human population
is more mobile than at any other point, bringing the people of the world into more
frequent and intense forms of contact. Xenophobia and anti-immigrant sentiment are
on the rise in Europe, and in the European settler cultures of North America and Australia. </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Racism is a form of power that reduces human beings to biological or
cultural types, which in turn reduce human diversity to essential categories (black/white,
Jew/Gentile), while at the same time justifying inequalities between them.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">t is
argued by scholars that European forms of racism have had the greatest impact on
world history .</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Minion'; font-size: 10.000000pt;"> </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-27062727632027461782013-09-09T22:25:00.000-07:002013-09-09T22:25:26.913-07:00The sex–gender distinction<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All societies recognize bodily sexed difference and organize their societies according
to what these differences mean. By making distinctions, and thus creating categories,
social order or structure is constructed. Through creating categories, the meanings of
female and male are made and thereby lived. It is via this process that individuals come
to know who they are in terms of
self-understanding and the understanding and perception of others. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This position in
language is one aspect of what is termed social structure or social order. These terms
include language and its use; architecture and the built environment; and institutions
and their settings (schools, government, religions and their organizations, marriage and
laws). Gender identity is ‘learned and achieved at the interactional level, reified at the
cultural level, and institutionally enforced via the family, law, religion, politics, economy,
medicine, and the media.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
</span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sociologists generally make a distinction between sex – the biological differences
between men and women – and gender – the learned differences. They argue that we are
not born masculine or feminine, but rather acquire and learn to embody distinct gender
attributes through processes of early socialization. Children in most cultures come to
learn the expectations, patterns of behaviour, identification and biography associated
with being a boy or a girl in their particular social, cultural or religious context. </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gender is not simply a question of embodied style; it also concerns attitudes and
ideas about what men and women essentially are or should be.</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
<br />
<br />
Children, too, are the social-cultural agents of gender
normalization at an early age, as they begin to police and repress within themselves,
and in each other, inclusive gender characteristics and identifications.<br />
<br />
</span><br />
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-46246054107491230362013-07-10T23:27:00.000-07:002013-07-26T00:56:00.193-07:00Patterns of Culture<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
The term pattern is used for those arrangements or systems of internal relationship which give to any culture its coherence or plan and keep it from being a mere accumulation of random bits.The total system or the ideology of patterning is called a configuration.Kroeber has distinguished two major kinds of pattern:<br />
<br />
1. Basic or Systemic Pattern- These are those that have persisted for years and years as coherent organization of traits with functional value ( agriculture,monotheism)<br />
<br />
2.Secondary Pattern- These are those that are subject to a great variety and instability( formal social organization,system of thought).<br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<br />
As an out growth from Kroeber's conceptualizations came the Patterns of Culture written by Ruth Benedict.She added a new dimension to the two types of patterns described by Kroeber.She refers to those qualities of cultural organization which come to prevade all or most spheres of some cultures and give them a distinctive individual slant.Benedict made use of psychological theories to characterize the individual patterns of culture.She named two major kinds of cultures:Apollonian and Dionysian.According to her, the former type of cultures emphasized order and restraint in individual and collective behaviour while the latter type of cultures emphasized emotional and sensory experiences.<br />
<br />
Ralph Linton pinpoints the four important dimensions of culture-<br />
The form of culture trait or complex is what can be perceived by the senses and objectively described.<br />
<br />
The meaning of its subjective associations in the culture,implicit and explicit.<br />
<br />
Its use is its relation to things outside the society and culture as expressible in physical terms.<br />
<br />
Its function is its relation within the society and culture.<br />
<br />
Malinowski in his A Scientific Theory of Culture provides a functional explanation of culture.According to him culture is the integral whole consisting of implements and consumer goods of constitutional charters for the various social groupings of human ideas and crafts,beleifs and customs.<br />
<br />
According to Malinowski each and every culture is complete and self-sufficient only because it satisfies the whole range of man's needs.He classifies man's needs into three categories-<br />
<br />
Primary or basic or biological needs- procreation,nutrition,defence,protection and so on<br />
<br />
Derived or instrumental needs- necessary to organize activity such as economic organization,law ,education<br />
<br />
Integrative or synthetic needs- Mental and moral integration: knowledge,magic,religion,art ,play.<br />
<br />
Malinowski call these needs alternatively as imperatives and calls that system which caters to these needs by fulfiling all the imperative requirements of mankind as a culture.</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-58900066071177021622013-07-10T01:01:00.000-07:002013-07-26T00:56:23.753-07:00Early Human Ancestors<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The critical factor that differentiates humans and
apes is bipedal locomotion. Comparative studies of fossils of humans and
animals show differences in the structure of skulls and pelvis. Bipedalism
freed the hands of our ancestors allowing them to carry loads and make tools.
Apart from bipedalism particular aspects of tooth number, size, shape and
enamel of teeth are of value in tracing human ancestry.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The earliest fossil evidence supporting the evolution
of a creature ancestral to humans was found in Kenya. The fossil a single
jawbone has been dated to be 5.5 million years old. More substantial evidence
was found in mid 1990s in northeastern Ethiopia where the remains of more than
40 individuals who lived about 4.4 million years ago were unearthed.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p><br /></span>
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The earliest hominid fossils of australopithecines
from North Kenya have been dated to be 4.2 to 3.9 million years old. Such
fossils were traced in Tanzania and Ethiopia also. The australopithecine
fossils have been found at Hadar in Ethiopia and named Lucy had 40% of bones
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">On the basis of fossil evidence it is considered that
australopithecines were small statured and had relatively smaller brains than
modern humans. The fully bipedal australopithecines lived in arid and semi-arid
environments in eastern and southern Africa. They were omnivores subsisting on fruits,
vegetables, insects and small game. No stone tools associated with
australopithecines.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Global weather cooled down about 2.5 million years ago
and it possibly resulted in the evolution of several hominid species. Of these
one was robust australopithecines also known, as Paranthropus.They were larger
than gracile australopithecines with heavier skulls with bony ridges. Robust
australopithecines lived in Africa till about a million years ago and they<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>do not seem to be ancestral to modern humans.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-69701440980217205092013-07-10T00:10:00.000-07:002013-07-26T00:56:40.431-07:00Marxism and Anthropology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Karl Marx was a socialist and a revolutionary thinker
of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. He was influenced by the works of Lewis Henry
Morgan a lawyer who turned his attention to ethnographic study of native people.
The notes prepared by Marx were used by Engels to bring out the book – The origin
of the Family, Private Property and the State.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Marxist anthropology provides a typical 19<sup>th</sup>
century model of social evolution in which contemporary ethnographic evidence
could be fitted into appropriate positions. The positions were recognized in
the movement from the primitive through the ancient and the feudal to the
capitalist and finally the communist stage. Economic base received primary
focus in Marxist anthropology and religion, law or sociology.</span></div>
<a name='more'></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><o:p></o:p><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Marxist anthropology received importance as a subject
of study in the Soviet Union and China. Its impact on North America and Europe
was low though some individual anthropologists in USA and Britain had certain political
and intellectual affiliations with Marxism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Engels was of the view that mankind passed through the
stages of primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, capitalism and
communism.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<!--EndFragment--></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-4503095487590770552013-07-08T06:12:00.000-07:002013-07-10T00:14:01.968-07:00Emic/Etic<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Emic and etic have become terms in anthropology, for an ‘‘insider’’ versus
an ‘‘outsider’’ view of a particular social world.
For example, an outsider view of an economic
exchange might hold that a seller’s goal is to maximize profit. An insider view from people actually
involved in the exchange might show that profit
was not the concern.</span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The distinction between emic and etic, insider and
outsider, originated in the linguistics of the 1950s,
most famously in the work of Kenneth Pike (1967).
In the 1960s, anthropology borrowed and shortened
the linguist’s distinction between phonetic and phonemic and began talking about etic’’ and ‘‘emic.’’</span><br />
<br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Due to the debates between ‘‘materialist’’ or etic
and ‘‘symbolic’’ or emic approaches to anthropology, ‘‘etic’’ and ‘‘emic’’ turned into labels for com-
peting kinds of ethnographic descriptions. </span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The shift to etic/emic as a partition of
the ethnographic space rather than a dialectic
process by which it was explored introduced distortion into the use of the terms that continues to
this day. </span><br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-60350484730259506512013-07-07T07:09:00.002-07:002013-07-26T00:55:31.783-07:00Urban Revolution<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="column">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">The urban revolution refers to the emergence of
urban life and the concomitant transformation of
human settlements from simple agrarian-based systems to complex and hierarchical systems of manu-
facturing and trade. The term also refers to the
present era of metropolitan or megalopolis growth,
the development of exurbs, and the explosion of
primate or mega-cities. </span><br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">Archeologist V. Gordon
Childe coined the term </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046C;">urban revolution </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">to explain
the series of stages in the development of cities that
preceded the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth
century. For Childe, the first revolution the ‘‘Agricultural Revolution’’ occurred when hunting and
gathering societies mastered the skill of food production and began to live in stable and sedentary groups.
The second revolution the Urban Revolution began during the fourth and third millennia </span><span style="font-family: AdvP405D4;">bce </span><span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">in
the civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Near East.
The urban revolution ushered in a new era of population growth, complex urban development, and the
development of such institutions as the bureaucratic
state, warfare, architecture, and writing. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">For Henri
Lefebvre (2003), the urban revolution not only signifies a long historical shift from an agricultural to an
industrial to an urban world, but also refers to a shift
in the internal organization of the city, from the
political city of pre-medieval times to the mercantile,
then industrial, city to the present phase, where the
‘‘urban’’ becomes a global trend. Today, many
scholars use the term urban revolution to connote
profound changes in the social organization of societies, but they disagree over the conceptualization,
causes, and trajectory of the change.
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"> In his essay The urban revolution Childe
(1950) described the features of early communities
in Mesopotamia that marked the beginning of urban
settlements. A key feature of the first cities was their
immense population size, up to 20,000 residents;
their dense geographic concentration; production of
an agricultural surplus; and a specialized labor force
and system of governance. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">Today, scholars argue that
there is not one urban revolution but several. A
‘‘Second Urban Revolution,’’ for example, began
about 1750 as the Industrial Revolution generated
rapid urban growth in Europe. The economy, physical form, and culture of cities changed dramatically
as feudal power broke down and trade and travel
increased. Increasing size, density, and diversity of
cities combined with the growth of commerce to
make urban life more rational, anonymous, and </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: AdvP4046B;">depersonalized. </span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: AdvP4046B;"><br /></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8037224832335808780.post-7698292438912503462013-07-07T07:03:00.002-07:002013-07-10T00:14:28.786-07:00Tradition<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Tradition is generally understood as a body of
values, beliefs, rules, and behavior patterns that is
transmitted generationally by practice and word of
mouth and is integral to socialization processes.
Connoting fixity, stability, and continuity, it guides
daily behavior and justifies shared beliefs and practices. In small-scale societies, where tradition offers
the dominant blueprint for acceptable behavior, its
status is that of sacred lore. Where orally transmitted, however, tradition is always open to variation,
contestation and change, and becomes a model ofpast practices rather than a passively and unreflec-
tively inherited legacy.</span><br />
<a name='more'></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Since the 1990s, the historical turn in anthropological theory has led scholars to contextualize the
emergence of particular constructions of tradition
within colonization, missionization and post-war
‘‘development’’ and in articulation with the global
political economy. Since 1980s,
the topic of tradition has proved remarkably durable, engendering a multilayered body of knowledge
about constructions of the past in contemporary
societies. Social actors’ received notions of tradition
as the solid foundation that underpins customary
behavior have been deemphasized in scholarly analyses in favor of conceptions of it as constantly
subject to reinterpretation and rereading by each
new generation of carriers, who construe their past
in terms both of present perceptions and understandings and future hopes and needs.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05372200335579827448noreply@blogger.com0